Salafism, a complex and multifaceted conservative global Islamic movement, has become a topic of increased interest among a range of scholars over the last decade. Although worthy of study in its own right, the Salafi movement often attracts attention because certain components of it provide much of the ideological inspiration for jihadist groups including al-Qaeda and the Islamic State (IS).
This study is one of the first to focus solely on Salafism in the United States. Drawing on multiple primary sources, including interviews with leading American Salafis, it provides an overview of the history, evolution, and contours of the movement in America. In doing so, it also offers insights into the genesis of jihadism in the U.S.
Salafis base their beliefs and practices on the salaf al-salih (the first three generations of Muslims) who they believe represent the most authentic form of Islam. In an effort to recreate that era, they follow a literalist interpretation of the two primary Islamic texts, the Quran and the sayings of Muhammad (hadith). The primary mission of the movement is to purify Islam of sinful innovations which they believe many Muslims have adopted over the centuries.
Today, scholars broadly divide Salafism into three strands: quietist, activist, and jihadist. These categories offer a useful starting point for analysis, but it is important to note that the boundaries between the subdivisions are fluid and overlapping. Quietists stress the importance of Islamic study and peaceful propagation and eschew involvement in politics. Activists, however, believe that the creation of political organizations is the most effective way to achieve the goals of the movement. They are influenced by Islamist ideology and groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood. Jihadists represent the most extreme form of Salafism and believe that the only effective and legitimate form of activism is violence, either in the form of terrorism or insurgency.
This study finds that these three strands of the Salafi movement exist in America today:
- Quietists: The quietist strand was the first to be established in America. It was originally represented by an organization called the Quran and Sunnah Society (QSS), members of which began preaching in the 1980s. The dominant Salafi group for over a decade, by the mid-1990s the influence of QSS began to wane, and it eventually shut down. However, quietists continue to preach in America, and their main hubs are found in Islamic centers based in New Jersey and Philadelphia. They draw almost all their inspiration directly from the senior scholars of the Saudi Arabian religious establishment.
- Activists: As the quietists began to lose influence in the 1990s, partly due to their refusal to engage in or discuss politics, activist Salafi groups filled the vacuum. The most prominent of these groups was the Islamic Assembly of North America (IANA), which drew much of its ideological influence from activist scholars based in the Middle East. Due to its willingness to discuss contemporary geopolitical issues related to Muslims, it attracted a wide range of American Muslims and soon overtook QSS. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, IANA became subject to intense scrutiny from the FBI due to some of its members’ support for jihad, and by 2003 it effectively ceased to exist. Its influence, however, lives on today as the wellspring of many of America’s most influential politically active Salafis. One group that emerged out of IANA is the al-Maghrib Institute, an Islamic education hub founded in 2002. Its leading members, including the popular imam Yasir Qadhi, represent a unique form of American “post-Salafism.”
- Jihadists: Foreign-born jihadists have been active in America since the 1980s, but American jihadist ideologues emerged in the late 1990s mostly as products of the activist Salafi strand. Among the first of these was Ali al-Timimi, who began his career as a one of the first American-born Salafi preachers and an influential figure within IANA. He went on to become the spiritual leader of the so-called Virginia Jihad Network in 2001 before being jailed in 2005. This milieu of American activists also included Anwar al-Awlaki, who eventually left the U.S. and became the most influential American jihadist ideologue to date. America’s jihadists helped to facilitate the emergence of an indigenous “homegrown” jihadism by making the ideology more accessible and relevant for American Muslim audiences.
Today, the most vocal and active Salafi jihadist in America is Michigan-based Ahmad Musa Jibril. He rose to prominence during the early stages of the Syrian civil war due to his influence over Westerners who traveled to fight against the Assad regime. However, this study reveals that he had a following in the United States since the late 1990s when he preached in support of jihad against Saudi Arabia and America. Today, he continues to promote a form of Salafi jihadism that supports the use of violence to establish Islamic law in Muslim-majority countries, with a focus on Syria and Iraq. Jibril is not, however, known to be directly involved in violence, and has not been charged with any terrorism offenses.
Although Salafism is thought to transcend local culture and politics, this study argues that, since its establishment in America, strands of the movement have adopted traits unique to the national context. Some American Salafis have developed their own set of terms to describe themselves and their opponents. Others are influenced by national politics and social issues and have shed some of the more divisive and obstinate elements of Salafi belief. These developments led to the creation of an indigenous Salafi-influenced Islam which will continue to evolve and change in response to local and global events.
Various Western European nations have grappled with the question of how, if at all, to deal with Salafis operating inside their borders. Most take a negative view and regard the movement as both a threat to social cohesion and a contributing factor to the radicalization of their citizens. Some states have gone as far as enacting laws that restrict Salafi activism, and others have banned specific Salafi groups. In some cases, however, authorities have worked with quietist Salafis to help prevent the radicalization of Muslims. This approach is based on a belief that they possess the credibility and religious credentials to dissuade Muslims from adopting jihadist beliefs.
In the United States, where the government is constitutionally restricted from interfering in religious matters, there is little discussion of the role of Salafis in either causing or preventing radicalization. However, as policymakers continue to consider their options for how to approach homegrown radicalization, it is important that they are informed of the history and status of the various forms of Salafi activism in America.
